Table 1 Improved materials used to substitute wheat flour in biscuit production
Product added | Improvement elements | Substitution level (%) | Reference |
|---|---|---|---|
Buckwheat | Processing properties, sensory, and textural characteristics, protein content, and gluten-free biscuits | 50–100 | Sedej et al. 2011; Torbica et al. 2012; Hadnađev et al. 2013; Mancebo et al. 2015; Kaur et al. 2015 |
Sorghum | Dietary fiber and low calorie; Fat, protein, ash, and calorific values as compared to wheat biscuits | 25–45, 50, and 100 | Okpala & Okoli 2011; Banerjee et al. 2014; Rai et al. 2014; Songré-Ouattara et al. 2016, 2017 |
Maize | Gluten-free biscuits | 100 | |
Rice | Processing properties, sensory, and textural characteristics, gluten-free biscuits | 50–100 | Ceesay et al. 1997; Torbica et al. 2012; Hadnađev et al. 2013; Radočaj et al. 2014; Rai et al. 2014; Mancebo et al. 2015; Benkadri et al. 2018; Sulieman et al. 2019 |
Pearl millet | Fat, protein, ash, and calorific values as compared to wheat biscuits | 100 | Rai et al. 2014 |
Foxtail millet flour | Low phytates and tannins, increased polyphenols | 9 | Singh & Kumar 2017 |
Copra | Fiber and protein contents | 51 | Singh et al. Singh & Kumar 2017 |
Pea | Protein, fat, iron, and crude fiber contents | 5–100 | (Adeola & Ohizua 2018, Benkadri et al. 2018 Chinma et al. 2011, Dhankhar et al. 2019, Han et al. 2010, Okpala & Okoli 2011, Silky & Tiwari 2014, Zucco et al. 2011) |
Bean | Physical and nutritional characteristics | 25, 50, 75, and 100 | |
Lentil | Physical and nutritional characteristics | 100 | |
Potato | Protein, fat, minerals, crude fiber, staling, flavor, ash, and sugar | 10, 14, 16, 18–100 | (Abou-Zaid & Elbandy 2014; Onabanjo & Ighere 2014; Adeyeye & Akingbala 2015; Songré-Ouattara et al. 2016; Adeola & Ohizua 2018; Sulieman et al. 2019) |
Cheese | Digestible source of fat and protein and rich source of vitamin A, B2 and B12 and highly bioavailable minerals as calcium and zinc | 30, 40, and 50 | Swapna & Jayaraj Rao 2016 |
Date powder | Fiber | 10, 20, 30, and 40 | Dhankhar et al. 2019 |
Soy | Protein, anti-nutrients, amino acids and vitamins profile and sensory evaluation | 5, 10, 15, and 20 | Hu et al. 2013, Loo et al. 2017; Ghoshal & Kaushik 2020, Adeyeye 2020 |
Flaxseed | ω-3 (α-linolenic acid), dietary soluble and insoluble fibers and lignans | 5, 12, 15, 30, 50, and 75 | Hassan et al. 2012; Coutinho de Moura et al. 2014; Austria et al. 2016; Omran et al. 2016; Kuang et al. 2020 |
Almond | Bioactive components | – | |
Groundnut | Energy, protein, calcium, and iron | – | Ceesay et al. 1997 |
Fenugreek | Protein, lysine, dietary fiber, Ca, Fe, alkaloids, flavonoids, and saponins | 5, 10, and 15 | Hooda & Jood 2005 |
Mushrooms | Protein, fiber, ash, fat, potassium, phosphorus, magnesium, calcium, vitamin B3, vitamin C, texture, flavor, and sensory acceptability | 5, 10, 15, and 20 | |
Acha | Carbohydrate | 100 | Ayo et al. 2018 |
Cocoyam | Carbohydrate | 100 | |
Tigernut flour | Protein, magnesium, iron, zinc, vitamin E, vitamin A, and folic acid | 30, 50, 70, 80, 85, 90 and 95 | |
Gums | Effect of gums addition on color, appearance and flavor and overall acceptability | 100 | Kaur et al. 2015 |
Multi-micronutrients (Iron, zinc, iodine, and vitamin A) | Iron, zinc, iodine, and vitamin A content | – | |
Amaranth flours | Amino acid profile and high bioavailability of protein | 13, 20, and 40 | |
Fish and crustacean | Lysine, amino acids | 3, 5, and 6 | |
Grape (skin and seeds) | Proteins, ash, lipids, carbohydrates, vitamins, and phenolic compounds (tannins, phenolic acids, anthocyanins, and resveratrol) | 15 | |
Moringa | Carotenoid, protein, and dietary fiber | 5, 10, and 15 | |
Spirulina | Carotenoid | 4, 6, and 8 | |
Hemp flour | Protein, crude fibers, minerals, and essential fatty acids | 10, 20, 30, and 40 | Radočaj et al. 2014 |
Okra powder | Protein, ash, and fiber | 5, 10, 15, 20, and 25 | Akoja & Coker 2018 |
Tea leaves | Protein, fiber, minerals, and antioxidant properties | 2.67, 2.02, 1.35, and 0.68 | Radočaj et al. 2014 |
Mustard meal | Sensory quality maintained, nutritional and functional properties improved | 5, 10, 15, 20, 25 and 30 | Hassan et al. 2012 |
Barley meal | Sensory quality maintained, nutritional and functional properties improved | 5, 10, 15, 20, 25 and 30 | Hassan et al. 2012 |
Teff flour | Essential amino acids, iron, calcium, copper, zinc, aluminum, and barium | 10, 20, 40, and 100 | |
Oat (flour and bran) | Influence of different packaging on the storage period, fibers content | 100 | Serial et al. 2016; Swapna & Jayaraj Rao 2016; Lee & Kang 2018; Duta et al. 2019 |
Inulin | Fibers content | – | Serial et al. 2016 |
Whey protein | Dietary fiber, protein, lipids, carbohydrate, sugar and energy | 25 | |
Agaricus bisporus polysaccharide | Ash, protein, fat and total dietary fibers | 3, 6, and 9 | Sulieman et al. 2019 |
Banana (flour and peel) | Phenolic compound, starch digestibility, and glycemic index | 5, 10, 15, 30, 45, and 50 | Ovando-Martinez et al. 2009; Agama-Acevedo et al. 2012; Arun et al. 2015; Adeola & Ohizua 2018 |
Mango peel | Dietary fiber, polyphenols and carotenoids | 5, 7.5, 10, 15, and 20 | Ajila et al. 2008 |
Fruit and vegetable residue | Fiber and mineral | 20, 25, and 35 | Ferreira et al. 2013 |
Citrus (orange and lemon) by-products | Dietary fiber | 0, 5, 10, and 15 | Kohajdova et al. 2011 |
Grapefruits by-products | Dietary fiber | 5, 10, and 15 | Kohajdova et al. 2013 |
Watermelon rind powder | Dietary fiber, total phenolic content, glycemic index, and antioxidant activity | 10, 20, and 30 | Naknaen et al. 2016 |
Sour cherry pomace | Total polyphenols, total anthocyanins, and antioxidant activity | 10 and 15 | Šaponjac et al. 2016 |
Berries pomace | Linoleic acid and α -linolenic acid | 20 and 30 | Šarić et al. 2016 |
Pomegranate peel | Protein, dietary fiber, minerals, antioxidant activity, and β-carotene content | 10 | Srivastava et al. 2014 |
Apple pomace | Antioxidant properties, total dietary fiber, and minerals content | 3, 6, 9, 15, and 20 | |
Olive pomace | Polyphenols and fiber | – | Conterno et al. 2019 |
Pomace of rowanberry, rosehip, blackcurrant, and elderberry | Dietary fiber, vitamins, and phenolic compounds | 20 | Tańska et al. 2016 |
Pumpkin | Dietary fiber | 10 and 15 | Turksoy & Ozkaya 2011 |
Carrot pomace | Dietary fiber | 10 and 15 | Turksoy & Ozkaya 2011 |
Carob by-products (germ and seed peel) | Protein, fiber and antioxidant activity | Carob peel: 0–9; Carob germ: 0–18 | Martin-Diana et al. 2016 |
Beet molasses | Biscuit spread, fracturability, and storability | 10–50 | |
Glucomannan and xanthan | Fiber content | – | Jenkins et al. 2008 |
Plant Stanol Ester | Phytosterols | – | Kriengsinyos et al. 2015 |
Fructo-oligosaccharides | Fiber content | 20 | Tuohy et al. 2001 |
Gum (guar and xanthan) | Technological properties, fiber content | 11 |