Table 3 Modification techniques employed to improve the functionality of jackfruit seed
MODIFICATION | TREATMENT | IMPACT | REFERENCES |
|---|---|---|---|
Annealing (Physical modification) | Single stage: 10 g starch heated with 50 mL distilled water at 45ºc, 50ºC, 55ºC, and 60ºC for 72 h Double stage: Involved additional heating step at a temperature that was 10ºC lower the stipulated temperature for the same duration | Increase in peak viscosity Increase in thermal stability Decrease in swelling power Decrease in solubility | (Bhattacharjya et al. 2015) |
Acid (Chemical modification) | Acid hydrolysis 25 g of dry starch in Hydrochloric acid with ethanol or methanol followed by heating and neutralizing with 1N NaOH | Increase in amylose content Increase in water absorption capacity Increase in solubility Increase in carbohydrates Decrease in oil absorption capacity Decrease in swelling power Decrease in dispersibility Decrease in protein & Fat | (Banyalet al. 2022) (Le et al. 2020) |
Pre-gelatinization (Physical modification) | 100 g jackfruit seed starch in 350 mL distilled water, heated at 80ºC for 15 min with slow addition of 200 mL methanol and continuous stirring | Increase in gelatinization enthalpy Increase in water solubility Increase in viscosity Increase in swelling power Increase in water uptake Decrease in crystallinity | (Kittipongpatana & Kittipongpatana 2011) |
Microwave (Physical modification) | 450 W, 5 min, and 50ºC | Increase in thermal stability | (Olalere et al. 2020) |
Heat Moisture (Physical modification) | Initially, 10.3% moisture content was adjusted to 20, 25, 30, and 35% by water addition and was thus heated in a hot air oven at 80, 90, 100, 110, and 120ºC for 6, 12, and 16 h | Increase in resistant starch Increase in gelatinization Increase in swelling power | (Kittipongpatana & Kittipongpatana 2015) |
Hydroxypropylation (Chemical modification) | Jackfruit seed starch (100 g) was suspended in 120 mL 1gL−1 NaOH with 15 g Na2SO4and after 10 min, 12 mL of propylene oxide was added and heated at 40ºC for 24 h | Increase in swelling power Increase in water solubility Increase in thermal stability | (Kittipongpatana & Kittipongpatana 2011) |
Cross-linking (Chemical modification) | Jackfruit seed starch (100 g) was suspended in 250 mL distilled water, with 15 g of sodium sulphate and 2.5 g of sodium trimetaphosphate. The pH of suspension was adjusted to 10.5 by adding 50gL−1 aqueous sodium hydroxide | Increase in crystallinity Increase in water uptake Decrease in flowability | (Kittipongpatana & Kittipongpatana 2011) |
Carboxymethylation (Chemical modification) | Alcoholic Solvents: Methanol, 1-propanol, and 2-propanol | Increase in water uptake Increase in viscosity | (Kittipongpatana & Kittipongpatana, 2011) |
Oxidation (Chemical modification) | 40 g starch was mixed in distilled water, using sulphuric acid and NaOH to adjust pH value. Copper sulphate was added as a catalyst and 2% Hydrogen peroxide (H2O2) was added as an oxidizing agent, pH-9, and temperature of 40ºC Starch was stirred at 35ºC, pH-9.5 with 2 M NaOH. Sodium hypochlorite (NaOCl) mixed with 1% active chlorine was slowly added within 30 min and continuously stirred for 50 min at the same pH and temperature | Decrease in grain surface smoothness Increase in recovery efficiency Increase in whiteness Increase in paste clarity Increase in thermal stability Increase in storage stability Increase in solubility | (Tung et al. 2021) (Naknaen et al. 2017) |
Partial gelatinization (Physical modification) | Starches were gelatinized by using 4 M Calcium chloride (CaCl2) | Increase in amylose content Increase in resistant starch Increase in gelatinization temperature | (Li et al. 2022) |
Extrusion cooking (Physical modification) | Starch is cooked in a sealed barrel under high pressure, high temperature, and high mechanical shearing force in short time | Increase in rapid digestibility of Starch | (Zhang et al. 2022) |
β-amylase (Enzyme modification) | Starch was modified by using 8% of β-amylase, pH-5.5, which is heated at 50-60ºC | Increase in water holding capacity | (Tran et al. 2015) |
Etherification with Propylene Oxide (Chemical modification) | Propylene oxide to modify starch for 24 h at 40ºC | Decrease in crystallinity Increase in molecular substitution Increase in swelling power Increase in solubility | (Naknaen 2014) |
Ultrasonication (Physical modification) | Ultrasonic waves were passed through the starch for the purpose of functional modification | Increase in high purity starch Increase in antibacterial properties | (Banyal et al. 2022) |
Cold plasma (Physical modification) | Jackfruit seed flour was treated with varying plasma voltages of 170, 200, and 230 V for 5–15 min | Increase in water solubility Increase in absorption Increase in swelling power Increase in water holding capacity Decrease in pH Decrease in moisture | (Joy et al. 2022) |